The composition of the computing system. The composition of the computer system Consider the hardware and software configuration m. The interfaces of any computer system can be divided into serial and parallel. The system level is transitional, which ensures the interaction of other programs of a computer system, both with programs of the base level and directly with hardware, in particular with the central processor.

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Lecture 4. The history of the development of computer technology. Classification of computers. The composition of the computing system. Hardware and software. Classification of service and application software

History of the development of computing technology

The first counting devices were mechanical devices. In 1642 a French mechanic Blaise Pascal developed a compact totalizing device mechanical calculator.

In 1673 German mathematician and philosopher Leibniz improved it by addingmultiplication and division operations. Throughout the 18th century, more and more advanced, but still mechanical computing devices based on gear, rack, lever and other mechanisms were developed.

The idea of ​​programming computational operations came from hourly industry. Such programming was rigid: the same operation was performed at the same time (example operation of the machine on the copier).

The idea of ​​flexible programmingcomputational operations was expressed by an English mathematicianCharles Babbage in 1836-1848 A feature of his analytical engine was the principle of dividing information intocommands and data. However, the project was not implemented.

Programs for computing on Babbage's machine, compiled by the daughter of the poet Byron Ada Lovelace (1815-1852) are very similar to the programs subsequently compiled for the first computers. This wonderful woman was namedthe first programmer in the world.

When switching from registration mode provisions mechanical device to mode registration states of electronic device elementsthe decimal system has becomeinconvenient, because the states of the elements are only two : on and off.

Possibility to present anynumbers in binary formwas first expressed by Leibniz in 1666.

The idea of ​​encoding logical statements into mathematical expressions:

• true (True) or false (False);
• in binary 0 or 1,

was realized by the English mathematician George Boole (1815-1864) in the first half XIX century.

However, the Boolean algebra of logic developed by him found application only in the next century, when a mathematical apparatus was needed for designing computer circuits using the binary number system. The American scientist Claude Shannon "connected" mathematical logic with the binary number system and electrical circuits in his famous dissertation (1936).

In logical algebra, when creating computers, they are used in Mainly 4 operations:

• AND (intersection or conjunction - A^b);
• OR (union or disjunction - AVB);
• NOT (inversion - |A) ;
• EXCLUSIVE OR ( A*| B+| A*B).

In 1936, the English mathematician A. Turing and, independently of him, E. Post, put forward and developed the conceptabstract computer. They proved the fundamental possibility of solving any problem by automata, provided that it can be algorithmized.

In 1946, John von Neumann, Goldstein and Burks (Princeton Institute for Advanced Study) compiled a report that contained a detailed descriptionprinciples of building digital computerswhich are still in use today.

1. John von Neumann's computer architecture includes:
   1. CPU, consisting of a control unit (CU) and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU);
   2. memory : operational (RAM) and external;
   3. Input Devices;
   4. output devices.
2. The principles of computer operation proposed by von Neumann:
   1. memory homogeneity;
   2. program control;
   3. targeting .
3. We can distinguish the main generations of computers and their characteristics:

years applications	1955 60	196065	1965 70	1970 90	From 1990 to the present time
Basic element	Electronic lamp	Transistor	IP (1400 elements)	Big IP (tens of thousands elements)	Big IP (millions elements)
Computer example	IBM 701 (1952)	IBM 360-40 (1964)	IBM 370- 145 (1970)	IBM 370-168 (1972)	IBM Server z990 2003
Fast- action, oper./s	8 000	246 000	1 230 000	7 700 000	9*10 9
RAM capacity, byte	20 480	256 000	512 000	8 200 000	256*10 9
Note	shannon, background Neumann, Norbert Wiener	Languages FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL	minicom- pewter, OS MS DOS, OS Unix, net	PC, graphic sky OS, Internet	Artificial- ny intelligence, recognize- speech, laser

The rapid development of computing systems began in the 60s of the 20th century with the rejection ofelectronic tubes and development semiconductor, and then laser technology.

Efficiency Computers (computers) grew significantly in the 70s of the 20th century with the development of processors based onintegrated circuits.

A qualitative leap in the development of computers occurred in the 80s XX century with the invention personal computer and the development of the worldwide information network - the Internet.

Computer classification

1. By appointment:
   • supercomputers;
   • servers;
   • embedded computers (microprocessors);
   • personal computers (PC).

Supercomputers - computing centers - created to solve extremely complex computational problems (modeling complex phenomena, processing super-large amounts of information, making forecasts, etc.).

Servers (from the English word serve to serve, manage) - computers that ensure the operation of a local or global network, specializing in providing information services and servicing computers of large enterprises, banks, educational institutions, etc.

Embedded computers (microprocessors) have become widespread in manufacturing and household appliances, where control can be reduced to the execution of a limited sequence of commands (robots on a conveyor, on-board, integrated into household appliances, etc.)

Personal computers ( PC ) are designed for the work of one person, therefore they are used everywhere. Their birth is considered August 12, 1981, when IBM introduced their first model. PC made a computer revolution in the lives of millions of people and had a huge impact on the development of human society.

PC are divided into mass, business, portable, entertainment, as well as workstations.

PC Standards :

• Consumer PC (mass);
  • Office PC (business);
  • Entertainment PC (entertainment);
  • Workstation PC (workstation);
  • Mobile PC (portable).

Most PCs are massive.

Business (office) PC contain professional programs, but they minimize the requirements for graphical means and means of sound reproduction.

In entertainment PC funds are widely available multimedia.

Workstations have increased requirements for data storage.

For portable devices, it is mandatory to have access to a computer network.

1. By level of specialization:
   • universal;
   • specialized (examples: file server, web server, print server, etc.).
2. By sizes:
   • desktop (desktop);
   • wearable (notebook, iPad);
   • pocket (palmtop);
   • mobile computing devices (PDA - p ersonal digital a ssist a nt) that combine the functions of palmtop and cell phones.
3. For hardware compatibility:
   • IBM PC;
   • Apple Macintosh.
4. By processor type:
   • Intel (in personal computers from IBM);
   • Motorola (in Macintosh personal computers).

The composition of the computing system

Consider the hardware and software configuration, since often the solution of the same tasks can be provided by both hardware and software. The criterion in each case is the efficiency of the work.

It is believed that increasing the efficiency of work due to the development of hardware turns out to be more expensive on average, but the implementation of solutions by software requires highly qualified personnel.

Hardware

to hardware computing systems includedevices and devices(using a block-modular design).

According to the way devices are placed relative to the central processing unit, internal and external devices are distinguished. External - these are I / O devices (peripheral devices) and additional devices designed for long-term data storage.

Coordination between individual blocks and nodes is carried out with the help of transitional hardware-logical devices - hardware interfaces that operate in accordance with approved standards.

The interfaces of any computer system can be conditionally divided intoserial and parallel.

Parallel interfaces are more complex, require synchronization between the transmitter and receiver, but have higher performance, which is measuredbytes per second(bytes/s, Kbytes/s, Mbytes/s). They are used (rarely now) when connecting a printer.

Sequential - easier and slower, they are calledasynchronous interfaces. Due to the lack of synchronization of packages, payload data is preceded and completed by packages of service data (1-3 service bits per 1 byte), performance is measuredbits per second(bps, kbps, Mbps).

They are used to connect input, output and storage devices of mouse, keyboard, flash memory, sensors, voice recorders, video cameras, communication devices, printers, etc.

Standards on hardware interfaces in VT are called protocols. Protocol is a set of technical conditions that must be provided by computer technology developers for successful coordination of device operation.

Software

Software (software) or software configuration are programs (ordered sequences of commands). There is a relationship between programs: some work based on others (of a lower level), that is, we should talk about an inter-program interface.

1. Basic level (BIOS) - the lowest level. The underlying software is responsible for interacting with the underlying hardware. Basic software is stored on the chip permanent storage device - ROM (Read Only Memory (ROM)).

If the parameters of the basic facilities need to be changed during operation, applyreprogrammable Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) ). The implementation of the PROM is carried out using a "non-volatile memory" chip or CMOS , which also works when the computer boots up.

1. System level- transitional, ensuring the interaction of other programs of the computer system, both with programs of the base level, and directly with the hardware, in particular with the central processor.

The system support includes:

• device drivers- programs that ensure the interaction of a computer with specific devices;
• installation tools programs;
• standard user interface tools,providing effective interaction with the user, entering data into the system and obtaining a result.

The set of system-level programs formsoperating system kernel PC.

If the computer is equipped with system-level software, then it is already prepared:

• to the interaction of software with hardware;
• to install programs of higher levels;
• and most importantly, to user interaction.

mandatory and generally sufficient condition to ensure work person on the computer.

1. service levelThe software allows you to work with both basic-level programs and system-level programs. The main purpose of utility programs (utilities) is to automate the work of checking, setting up and configuring a PC. In addition, they are used to enhance and improve the functions of system programs. Some of the service-level programs are initially included in the operating system as standard.

There are two alternative directions for developing and operating utilities: integration with the operating system and stand-alone operation.

In the second case, they provide the user with more options for personalizing their interaction with hardware and software.

1. Application layeris a set of application programs with the help of which specific tasks are performed at a given workplace. Their range is very wide (from industrial to entertaining).

Availability of application software and breadth of functionality PC directly depends on the operating system used, that is, what system tools its kernel contains and, therefore, how it provides interaction: a person programs equipment.

Utility Software Classification

1. File Managers(file managers). They copy, move, and rename files, create directories, delete files and directories, search for files, and navigate the file structure (for example, Explorer ( Windows Explorer).
2. Archivers file compression tools
3. Viewer and playback tools. Simple and versatile viewers that do not provide editing, but allow you to view (play back) documents of different types.
4. Diagnostic Toolsto automate the processes of software and hardware diagnostics. They are used not only for troubleshooting, but also for optimizing computer performance.
5. Means of control (monitoring) or monitors - allow you to monitor the processes occurring in the computer. Two modes are used: real-time monitoring and control with recording the results in a protocol file (used when monitoring needs to be provided automatically and remotely).
6. Installation monitors- provide software installation control, monitor the state of the environment, allow you to restore links lost as a result of removing previously installed programs.

The simplest monitors are usually part of the operating system and placed at the system level.

1. Communication media(communication programs) - connections with remote computers, serve the transmission of e-mail messages, etc.
2. Computer security tools(active and passive). Passive protection tools are backup programs. Anti-virus software is used as a means of active protection.
3. Means of electronic digital signature(EDS).

Classification of application programs

1. Text editors(Notepad, WordPad , Lexicon, editor Norton Commander, etc.).
2. Word processors(allow not only to enter and edit texts, but also to format, i.e., format them). Thus, the means of word processors include means of providing interaction text, graphics , tables, as well as a means of automating the formatting process (Word).
3. Graphic editor. These are raster (point), vector editors and creation tools three-dimensional graphics (3D editors).

In raster editors ( Paint ) a graphical object is represented as a combination of dots, each of which has the properties of brightness and color. This option is effective in cases where the image has many halftones, and information about the color of the elements of the object is more important than information about their shape. Raster editors are widely used for retouching images, creating photo effects, but they are not always convenient for creating new images and are uneconomical, because images have a lot of redundancy.

In vector editors ( CorelDraw ) the elementary object of the image is not a point, but a line. This approach is typical for drawing and graphic work, when the shape of the lines is more important than information about the color of the individual points that make it up. This representation is much more compact than the bitmap representation. Vector editors are convenient for creating images, but are practically not used for processing finished drawings.

3D graphics editors allow you to flexibly control the interaction of object surface properties with the properties of light sources, as well as create 3D animation, which is why they are also called 3D graphics editors. D-animators.

1. Database management systems(DBMS). Their main functions are:

• creating an empty database;
• providing the means to populate it and import data from tables in another database;
• providing data access, search and filtering tools.

1. Spreadsheets. These are complex tools for storing and processing data ( excel ). Provide a wide range of methods for working with numerical data.
2. Computer-Aided Design Systems(CAD systems). Designed to automate design work, and can also perform elementary calculations and select structural elements from databases.
3. Desktop publishing systems. Designed to automate the process of imposition of printed publications. They occupy an intermediate position between word processors and automatic design systems. A typical use case is application to documents that have been pre-processed in word processors and graphic editors.
4. Expert systems(analysis of data contained in knowledge bases). Their characteristic feature is the ability for self-development (if necessary, it generates a sufficient set of questions for an expert and automatically improves its quality).
5. WEB editors . Combine the properties of text and graphic editors and are intended for creating and editing WEB documents.
6. Browsers (viewers WEB documents).
7. Integrated business systems.Main functions editing and formatting of the simplest documents, centralization of e-mail, facsimile and telephone communications, dispatching and monitoring of enterprise documents.
8. Accounting systems combine the functions of text and spreadsheet editors, automate the preparation and accounting of primary documents, maintaining accounting plan accounts, and preparing regular reports.
9. Financial analyticalsystems. Used in banking and exchange structures. They allow you to control and predict the situation in the financial, stock and commodity markets, analyze, prepare reports.
10. geoinformationsystems (GIS). Are intended for automation of cartographic and geodetic works.
11. Video editing systemsvideo processing.
12. Educational, developing, reference and entertainingprograms. Their peculiarity is the increased requirements for multimedia tools (musical compositions, graphic animation and video materials).

In addition to hardware and software, there areInformation Support(spell checker, dictionaries, thesauri, etc.)

In specialized computer systems (on-board), a set of software and information support is called mathematical software.

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using computers? What are the categories of software for this
necessary?
Name the main categories of software related to the class of graphic editors. What is the main difference between these categories?
What is common and what is the difference between the concepts of software and information support of computer technology?

Computer Engineering

Basic concepts.

Often the concept of "computer technology" is identified with the concept of "computer". In this case, this concept means the following:

Definition: Computer(English) computer- "computer") - a machine for performing calculations.

With the help of calculations, a computer is able to process information according to a predetermined algorithm. In addition, most computers are capable of storing information and searching for information, displaying information on various types of information output devices. Computers got their name from their main function - to carry out calculations. However, nowadays it is better to say that the main functions of computers are information processing and control.

Basic principles: The computer can provide the tasks assigned to it by moving any mechanical parts, moving flows of electrons, photons, quantum particles, or by using the effects of any other well-studied physical phenomena.

The most widespread among computers are the so-called "electronic computers", computer. Actually, for the vast majority of people, the words "electronic computers" and "computers" have become synonymous words, although in reality this is not so. The most common type of computer is the electronic personal computer.

Computer architecture can directly model the problem being solved, reflecting the studied physical phenomena as closely as possible (in the sense of a mathematical description). Thus, electron flows can be used as models of water flows when modeling dams or dams. Similar-designed analog computers were common in the 1960s, but are now quite rare.

In most modern computers, the problem is first described in mathematical terms, with all the necessary information represented in binary form (in the form of ones and zeros), after which the actions to process it are reduced to the application of simple logic algebra. Since virtually all mathematics can be reduced to Boolean operations, a reasonably fast electronic computer can be used to solve most mathematical problems (and most information processing problems that can easily be reduced to mathematical ones).

It was found that computers still can not solve any mathematical problem. For the first time, problems that cannot be solved with computers were described by the English mathematician Alan Turing.

The result of the completed task can be presented to the user using various input-output devices, such as lamp indicators, monitors, printers, etc.

Beginning users, and especially children, often find it difficult to accept the idea that a computer is just a machine and cannot "think" or "understand" the words it displays on its own. The computer only mechanically displays the lines and colors specified by the program using input-output devices. The human brain itself recognizes images, numbers or words in what is shown on the screen and gives them certain meanings.

From the point of view of the division of computer science into separate sciences, one speaks of the science of "computer technology".

Definition: Computer Science and Engineering- this is a field of science and technology, which includes a set of means, methods and methods of human activity aimed at creating and applying:

Computers, systems and networks;

· automated information processing and control systems;

· computer-aided design systems;

· computer software and automated systems.

Definition: Computing is

1) a field of technology that combines means of automating mathematical calculations and information processing in various fields of human activity;

2) the science of the principles of construction, operation and design of these tools.

§2. "Computer technology" = "computer".

Etymology

Word computer is derived from English words to compute, computer, which translate as "calculate", "calculator" (the English word, in turn, comes from the Latin computo-"calculate"). Initially, in English, this word meant a person who performs arithmetic calculations with or without the involvement of mechanical devices. Later, its meaning was transferred to the machines themselves, but modern computers perform many tasks that are not directly related to mathematics.

First interpretation of the word computer appeared in 1897 in the Oxford English Dictionary. Its compilers then understood the computer as a mechanical computing device. In 1946, the dictionary was supplemented with additions that make it possible to separate the concepts of digital, analog and electronic computers.

Computer classifications

There are no clear boundaries between classes of computers. As structures and production technologies improve, new classes of computers appear, the boundaries of existing classes change significantly.

There are various classifications of computer equipment:

I. according to the principle of action

1. analog(AVM),

2. digital(TsVM)

3. hybrid(GVM)

II. by stages of creation (by generations)

1. 1st generation, 50s: Computers on electronic vacuum tubes;

2. 2nd generation, 60s: computers on discrete semiconductor devices (transistors);

3. 3rd generation, 70s: computers based on semiconductor integrated circuits with a small and medium degree of integration (hundreds - thousands of transistors in one case); Note. An integrated circuit is a special-purpose electronic circuit made in the form of a single semiconductor crystal that combines a large number of diodes and transistors.

4. 4th generation, 80s: computers based on large and ultra-large integrated circuits - microprocessors (tens of thousands - millions of transistors in one chip);

5. 5th generation, 90s: computers with many dozens of parallel microprocessors, allowing to build efficient knowledge processing systems; Computers on ultra-complex microprocessors with a parallel-vector structure, simultaneously executing dozens of sequential program instructions;

6. 6th and subsequent generations: optoelectronic computers with massive parallelism and neural structure - with a distributed network of a large number (tens of thousands) of simple microprocessors that simulate the architecture of neural biological systems.

III. by appointment

1. universal(general purpose),

2. problem-oriented

3. specialized

1. base computer .

2. Mainframe.

3. Specialized computer .

1) control computer .

2) Onboard computer .

3) Dedicated computer .

4) Household (home) computer .

IV. size and functionality

1. super-large (supercomputer),

2. big,

4. ultra-small (microcomputer)

1) universal

a) multiplayer

b) single-user (personal)

2) specialized

a) multi-user (servers)

b) single-user (workstations)

v. According to the operating conditions, computers are divided into two types:

1. office (universal);

2. special.

It should be noted that there are other classifications. For example:

in architecture.

in terms of performance.

by the number of processors.

consumer properties.

Brief description of computer classes

According to the principle of action

The criterion for dividing computers into these three classes is the form of information presentation with which they work (see figure).

Rice. Two forms of providing information in machines:

A - analog; b - digital pulse.

Digital Computing Machines (DVM)- computers of discrete action, work with information presented in discrete, or rather, in digital form.

Such computers are often called computers (electronic computers, electronic computers). The most widely used digital computers with electrical representation of discrete information are electronic digital computers. , commonly referred to simply electronic computers(COMPUTER), without mentioning their digital nature.

Unlike AVM, in a computer numbers are represented as a sequence of digits. In modern computers, numbers are represented in the form of binary equivalent codes, that is, in the form of combinations of 1 and 0. The principle of program control is implemented in computers. Computers can be divided into digital, electrified and calculating-analytical (perforating) computers.

Computers are divided into main computers, minicomputers and microcomputers. They differ in their architecture, technical, operational and overall weight characteristics, areas of application.

Advantages of a computer:

§ high accuracy of calculations;

§ universality;

§ automatic input of information necessary to solve the problem;

§ variety of tasks solved by computers;

§ independence of the amount of equipment from the complexity of the task.

Disadvantages of computers:

§ the complexity of preparing the problem for solution (the need for special knowledge of methods for solving problems and programming);

§ insufficient visibility of the processes, the complexity of changing the parameters of these processes;

§ complexity of the computer structure, operation and maintenance;

§ requirement of special equipment when working with elements of real equipment

Analogue computers (AVM)- computers of continuous operation, work with information presented in a continuous (analog) form, i.e. in the form of a continuous series of values ​​of some physical quantity (most often electrical voltage).

Analog computers are very simple and easy to use; programming tasks for solving them, as a rule, is not laborious; the speed of solving problems changes at the request of the operator and can be made arbitrarily large (more than that of a digital computer), but the accuracy of solving problems is very low (relative error 2-5%). On the AVM, it is most effective to solve mathematical problems containing differential equations that do not require complex logic.

It is a continuous computer that processes analog data. It is intended to reproduce certain relationships between continuously changing physical quantities. The main areas of application are related to the modeling of various processes and systems.

In AVM, all mathematical quantities are represented as continuous values ​​of some physical quantities. Mainly, the voltage of the electrical circuit acts as a machine variable. Their changes occur according to the same laws as the changes in the given functions. In these machines, the method of mathematical modeling is used (a model of the object under study is created). The results of the solution are displayed in the form of dependences of electrical voltages as a function of time on the oscilloscope screen or recorded by measuring instruments. The main purpose of AVM is the solution of linear and differentiated equations.

Advantages of AVM:

§ high speed of solving problems, commensurate with the speed of the passage of an electrical signal;

§ simplicity of AVM design;

§ ease of preparing the problem for solution;

§ visualization of the course of the processes under study, the possibility of changing the parameters of the processes under study during the study itself.

Disadvantages of AVM:

§ low accuracy of the results obtained (up to 10%);

§ algorithmic limitations of the tasks to be solved;

§ manual input of the problem to be solved into the machine;

§ a large amount of equipment involved, growing with an increase in the complexity of the task

Hybrid computers(GVM) - computers of combined action, work with information presented both in digital and in analog form; they combine the advantages of AVM and digital computer. It is expedient to use the GVM for solving the problems of controlling complex high-speed technical complexes.

Sometimes these machines are called " combined computers», « analog-to-digital computers (ATsVM)»

They have characteristics such as speed, ease of programming and versatility. The main operation is integration, which is performed using digital integrators.

In such machines, numbers are represented as in a computer (a sequence of numbers), and the method of solving problems is as in an AVM (a method of mathematical modeling).

By stages of creation

The division of computer technology into generations is a very conditional, non-strict classification of computing systems according to the degree of development of hardware and software, as well as ways to communicate with a computer.

The idea of ​​dividing machines into generations was brought to life by the fact that during the short history of its development, computer technology has undergone a great evolution both in the sense of element base(lamps, transistors, microcircuits, etc.), and in terms of changing its structure, the emergence of new opportunities, expanding areas of application and nature of use.

Computer of the 1st generation[ first generation computer ]

The first generation usually includes machines created at the turn of the 50s.

All computers of the first generation were made based on electron tubes, which made them unreliable - the lamps had to be changed frequently.

Rice. Electric lamp

These computers were huge, inconvenient and too expensive machines, which could only be acquired by large corporations and governments. Lamps consumed a huge amount of electricity and generated a lot of heat..

The set of instructions was small, the scheme of the arithmetic logic unit and the control unit is quite simple, the software was practically absent. The RAM and performance scores were low. For I / O, punched tapes, punched cards, magnetic tapes and printing devices were used.

Rice. Card

The speed is about 10-20 thousand operations per second.

But this is only the technical side. Another thing is also very important - the ways of using computers, the style of programming, the features of software.

Programming was done in low-level programming languages. Programs for these machines were written in the language of a specific machine. The mathematician who compiled the program sat down at the control panel of the machine, entered and debugged the programs, and made an account on them. The debugging process was the longest in time.

Despite the limited capabilities, these machines made it possible to perform the most complex calculations necessary for weather forecasting, solving problems of nuclear energy, etc.

Experience with the first generation of machines has shown that there is a huge gap between the time spent on developing programs and the time of computing.

Rice. a - Computer "Eniak", b - computer "Ural"

These problems began to be overcome through the intensive development of programming automation tools, the creation of service programs systems that simplify the work on the machine and increase the efficiency of its use. This, in turn, required significant changes in the structure of computers, aimed at bringing it closer to the requirements that arose from the experience of operating computers.

Domestic machines of the first generation: MESM (small electronic calculating machine), BESM, Strela, Ural, M-20.

Computer of the second generation[second-generation computer ]

Machines of this generation were constructed around 1955-65.

IN 1958. in computers (computers of the second generation) were applied semiconductor transistors, invented in 1948 by William Shockley.

Invention history:

· On July 1, 1948, a modest report was placed on one of the New York Times radio and television pages that Bell Telephone Laboratories had developed an electronic device that could replace the vacuum tube. Theoretical physicist John Bardeen and the firm's lead experimenter Walter Brattain created the first working transistor. It was a point-contact device in which 2 metal "antennae" were in contact with a bar of polycrystalline germanium.

· The creation of the transistor was preceded by hard, almost 10-year work, which was started in 1938 or 1939 by the theoretical physicist William Shockley. However, to be more precise, the history of the transistor began much earlier. Back in 1906, the Frenchman Picard proposed a crystal detector, then in 1922, the Soviet radio physicist O.V. Losev showed the possibility of amplifying and generating oscillations using such detectors. After 3 years, a professor at the University of Leipzig, Julius Lilienfeld, tried to create an amplifying semiconductor device. However, these experiments were forgotten. They were remembered only after the transistor won worldwide recognition.

· It happened quite quickly, by the way. After several years of searching for technology for the manufacture of semiconductor devices and the invention of new designs (in particular, a planar transistor patented by W. Shockley in 1951), a number of American firms began mass production of transistors, which at first were used mainly in radio and communication equipment.

Transistors were more reliable, durable, small, could perform much more complex calculations, had large RAM. 1 transistor was able to replace ~ 40 vacuum tubes and works at a higher speed.

At the same time, at first, both vacuum tubes and discrete transistor logic elements were used in these computers. Later discrete transistorized logic gates supplanted vacuum tubes.

§ As information carriers used magnetic tapes("BESM-6", "Minsk-2", "Ural-14") and magnetic cores.

§ Their working memory b was built on magnetic cores.

§ The range of input-output equipment used began to expand, high-performance magnetic tape machines, magnetic drums and the first magnetic disks.

§ As software began to use high level programming languages. The means of such languages ​​allow the description of the entire necessary sequence of computational actions in a visual, easy-to-understand way. A program written in an algorithmic language is incomprehensible to a computer that only understands the language of its own instructions. Therefore, special programs called translators, translate the program from a high-level language into machine language.

§ Appeared a wide range of library programs for solving various mathematical problems.

§ Appeared monitor systems that control the mode of broadcasting and program execution. From monitor systems, modern operating systems later grew. Thus, the operating system is a software extension of the computer control device. For some machines of the second generation, operating systems with limited capabilities have already been created.

§ Machines of the second generation were inherent software incompatibility, which made it difficult to organize large information systems. Therefore, in the mid-60s, there was a transition to the creation of computers that are software compatible and built on a microelectronic technological base.

§ Performance– up to hundreds of thousands of operations per second.

§ Memory capacity up to several tens of thousands of words.

Features, difference from the first generation.

1. Higher reliability.

2. Less energy consumption.

3. Higher performance due to:

Increasing the speed of switching counting and storage elements

· Changes in the structure of machines.

Rice. a - Transistor, b - memory on magnetic cores

Starting from the second generation, machines began to be divided into large, medium and small on the basis of size, cost, computing capabilities. Thus, small domestic machines of the second generation (“Nairi”, “Razdan”, “Mir”, etc.) with a capacity of about 10 4 operations per second were quite accessible to every university in the late 60s, while -6 had professional indicators (and cost) 2-3 orders of magnitude higher.

Rice. BESM-6.

COMPUTER III-th generation[third generation computer]

In 1960, the first integrated circuits (ICs) appeared, which became widespread due to their small size, but huge capabilities.

Rice. integrated circuits

An IC (Integrated Circuit) is a silicon chip with an area of ​​approximately 10 mm2. The first IC is capable of replacing tens of thousands of transistors. One crystal does the same job as a 30-ton Eniac. A computer using an IC achieves a performance of 10 million operations per second.

In 1964, IBM announced the creation of six models of the IBM 360 (System 360) family, which became the first computers of the third generation.

Third generation machines are families of machines with a single architecture, i.e. software compatible. As an element base, they use integrated circuits, which are also called microcircuits.

Third generation machines have advanced operating systems. They have multi-programming capabilities, i.e. simultaneous execution of several programs. Many of the tasks of managing memory, devices and resources began to be taken over by the operating system or directly by the machine itself.

Examples of third-generation machines are the IBM-360, IBM-370 families, ES computers (Unified Computer System), SM computers (Small Computers Family), etc. The speed of machines within the family varies from several tens of thousands to millions of operations per second. The capacity of RAM reaches several hundred thousand words.

First integrated circuits (ICs)

The first integrated circuit, developed in 1960, was the prototype of modern microchips. An integrated circuit consists of miniature transistors and other elements mounted on a silicon crystal.

37 years ago, in 1964, IBM announced the creation of six models of the IBM 360 (System 360) family, which became the first computers of the third generation.

The models had a single command system and differed from each other in the amount of RAM and performance. IBM CEO Thomas Watson Jr. called the introduction of this family of machines "the most important event in the company's history." The first samples of the IBM 360 series machines were delivered to customers in the second half of 1965, and by 1970 the company had developed about 20 models, but some of them were never brought to mass production (more than 33 thousand machines of this family were produced in total).

When creating the models of the family, a number of new principles were used, which made the machines universal and allowed them to be used with equal efficiency both for solving problems in various fields of science and technology, and for processing data in the field of management and business (the number 360 in the name of the series indicates the ability to machines to work in all directions - within 360°). The most important innovations were:

· elemental and technological base of machines of the third generation;

software compatibility of all models of the family;

· an operating system containing translators for the most common programming languages ​​of that time (Fortran, Cobol, RPG, Algol 60, PL/1), and it was possible to include translators for other languages ​​in the system;

· "universality" of the command system, which was provided by adding additional commands for various purposes to the so-called standard command system;

the ability to connect a large number of external devices and standard pairing of these devices with the processor through the equipment of communication channels (in this case, it was possible to combine several machines into one computer system);

organization of memory that does not depend on the physical implementation, providing easy movement and flexible protection of programs;

a powerful system of hardware and software interrupts, which made it possible to organize the efficient operation of machines in real time. The creation of models of the IBM 360 series had a significant impact on the entire course of development of computer technology. The structure and architecture of these machines with various changes in the element base were reproduced in a number of computer families in many countries.

computer III generation. IN 1960. the first integrated circuits (ICs), which are widely used due to their small size, but huge capabilities.

・Computer using IC achieves performance V 10 million operations per second.

· In 1964, IBM announced the creation of six models of the IBM 360 (System 360) family, which became the first computers of the third generation.

The third generation machines are families of machines with a single architecture, i.e. software compatible.

· As element base they use integrated circuits, which are also called microcircuits.

3rd generation machines have advanced operating systems.

・They have multiprogramming capabilities, i.e. simultaneous execution of several programs.

4th generation computer[fourth-generation computer]

In the early 70s, medium-sized integrated circuits began to be used. And later - large integrated circuits.

In addition to changing the elemental and technological base, new ideas have appeared on the structure of computers, programming, use and operation of computer systems, etc.

For the first time, large integrated circuits (LSI) began to be used, which roughly corresponded in power to 1000 ICs. This led to a reduction in the cost of manufacturing computers. In 1980, it was possible to place the central processing unit of a small computer on a 1/4 inch (0.635 cm2) chip.

LSIs were already used in such computers as Illiac, Elbrus, Macintosh. The speed of such machines is thousands of millions of operations per second. The capacity of RAM (RAM) has increased to 500 million bits. In such machines, several instructions are simultaneously executed on several sets of operands.

From a structural point of view: machines of this generation are multiprocessor And multi-machine complexes working on shared memory and common field of external devices. The capacity of RAM is about 1 - 64 MB.

The spread of personal computers by the end of the 70s led to some decrease in demand for main computers and minicomputers. This became a matter of serious concern to IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) - a leading company in the production of mainframe computers, and in 1979 IBM decided to try its hand at the personal computer market, creating the first personal computers - IBM PC.

They are characterized by:

the use of personal computers;

· telecommunication data processing;

· computer networks;

Widespread use of database management systems;

· elements of intelligent behavior of data processing systems and devices.

fourth generation computers large and very large integrated circuits(BIS and VLSI), virtual memory, multiprocessor construction principle with parallel execution of operations, advanced tools dialogue.

5th generation computers[fourth-generation computer], COMPUTER VI-th generation and so on

Fifth generation computers - 90s: computers with many dozens of microprocessors operating in parallel, which make it possible to build effective knowledge processing systems; Computers on ultra-complex microprocessors with a parallel-vector structure, simultaneously executing dozens of sequential program instructions.

Computers of the sixth generation and subsequent generations: optoelectronic computers with massive parallelism and neural structure - with a distributed network of a large number (tens of thousands) of simple microprocessors that simulate the architecture of neural biological systems.

Each next generation of computers has significantly better characteristics compared to the previous one. Thus, the performance of computers and the capacity of all storage devices increase, as a rule, by more than an order of magnitude.

If the developers of computers from generations I to IV faced such tasks as increasing productivity in the field of numerical calculations, achieving a large memory capacity, then the main task of computer developers of the fifth generation (and subsequent ones) is to create artificial intelligence of the machine (the ability to draw logical conclusions from the facts presented ), the development of "intellectualization" of computers - the elimination of the barrier between man and computer. Computers will be able to perceive information from handwritten or printed text, from forms, from a human voice, recognize the user by voice, and translate from one language to another. This will allow all users to communicate with computers, even those who do not have special knowledge in this area. The computer will be an assistant to man in all areas.

The development of subsequent generations of computers is based on large integrated circuits of increased degree of integration, using optoelectronic principles ( lasers, holography).

There is a qualitative transition from data processing to knowledge processing.

It is assumed that the architecture of future generation computers will contain two main blocks. One of them is traditional computer. But now it is out of touch with the user. This connection is carried out by a block called the term "intelligent interface". Its task is to understand the text written in natural language and containing the condition of the problem, and translate it into a working program for a computer.

The problem of decentralization of computing will also be solved with the help of computer networks, both large, located at a considerable distance from each other, and miniature computers located on a single semiconductor chip.

By appointment

Universal Computers are designed to solve a wide variety of engineering and technical problems: economic, mathematical, informational and other problems that are distinguished by the complexity of algorithms and a large amount of processed data. They are widely used in public computing centers and other powerful computing systems.

The characteristic features of mainframe computers are:

• high performance;

• a variety of forms of processed data: binary, decimal, symbolic, with a large range of their changes and high accuracy of their presentation;

• an extensive range of operations performed, both arithmetic, logical, and special;

• large capacity of RAM;

• advanced organization of the information input-output system, providing connection of various types of external devices.

Problem-oriented Computers are used to solve a narrower range of tasks associated, as a rule, with the management of technological objects; registration, accumulation and processing of relatively small amounts of data; performing calculations using relatively simple algorithms; they have limited hardware and software resources compared to mainframe computers.

Problem-oriented computers include, in particular, all kinds of control computing systems.

Specialized Computers are used to solve a narrow range of problems or to implement a strictly defined group of functions. Such a narrow orientation of computers makes it possible to clearly specialize their structure, significantly reduce their complexity and cost while maintaining high performance and reliability of their operation.

Specialized computers include, for example, programmable microprocessors for special purposes; adapters and controllers that perform logical control functions for individual simple technical devices, units and processes; devices for coordinating and interfacing the operation of computer system nodes.

base computer [original computer] - a computer, which is the initial initial model in a series of computers of a certain type or type.

Mainframe[universal computer] is a computer designed to solve a wide class of problems. Computers of this class have a branched and algorithmically complete system of operations, a hierarchical structure memory and advanced system I/O devices data.

Specialized computer [specialized computer] - a computer designed to solve a narrow class of specific tasks. Characteristics and architecture machines of this class are determined by the specific tasks for which they are oriented, which makes them more effective in the appropriate application in relation to mainframe. The category of specialized computers can include, in particular, “control”, “on-board”, “household” and “dedicated” computers.

control computer[control computer] - a computer designed for automatic control of an object (device, system, process) in real time. The interface of the computer with the control object is carried out using analog-digital And digital-to-analog converters.

Relatively recently, the term "computer technology" has appeared in everyday life. This designation did not initially imply all those aspects that are invested in it today. And, unfortunately, most people for some reason believe that computers and computer technology are synonymous words. This is a clear misconception.

Computing: the meaning of the word

The meaning of this term can be interpreted in completely different ways, especially since different dictionaries can interpret it in different interpretations.

However, if we approach the issue as if with a certain generalization, we can safely say that computer technology is technical devices with a set of certain mathematical tools, techniques and methods for automating (or even mechanizing) the processing of any information and calculation processes or describing one or more another phenomenon (physical, mechanical, etc.).

what is it in the broadest sense?

Computer technology has been known to mankind for a long time. The most primitive devices that appeared hundreds of years before our era can be called, for example, the same Chinese abacus or the Roman abacus. Already in the second half of this millennium, such devices as the Knepper scale, Shikkard adding machine, counting machine, etc. appeared. Judge for yourself, today's analogues in the form of calculators can also be safely attributed to one of the varieties of computer technology.

Nevertheless, the interpretation of this term acquired a more extended meaning with the advent of the first computers. This happened in 1946, when the first computer was created in the USA, designated by the abbreviation ENIAC (in the USSR, such a device was created in 1950 and was called MESM).

To date, the interpretation has expanded even more. Thus, at the present stage of technology development, it can be determined that computer technology is:

• computer systems and network management tools;
• automated control and data (information) processing systems;
• automated means of design, modeling and forecasting;
• software development systems, etc.

Computing tools

Now let's see what the means of computer technology are. At the heart of any process is information or, as they say now, data. But the concept of information is considered to be quite subjective, since for one person a process can carry a semantic load, but for another it does not. Thus, for the unification of data, it was developed which is perceived by any machine and is used for data processing most widely.

Among the tools themselves, one can single out technical devices (processors, memory, input / output devices) and software, without which all this “hardware” is completely useless. Here it is worth noting separately that the computing system has a number of characteristic features, for example, integrity, organization, connectivity and interactivity. There are also so-called computing systems, which are classified as multiprocessor systems that provide reliability and increased performance levels that are not available to conventional single-processor systems. And only in a common combination of hardware and software can we say that they are the main means of computing. Naturally, one can add here the methods by which a mathematical description of a particular process is made, but this can take quite a long time.

The device of modern computers

Based on all these definitions, it is possible to describe the operation of modern computers. As mentioned above, they combine hardware and software parts, and one cannot function without the other.

Thus, a modern computer (computer technology) is a set of technical devices that ensure the functioning of the software environment to perform certain tasks, and vice versa (a set of programs for the operation of hardware). The most correct is the first statement, and not the second, because in the end this set is needed precisely for processing the incoming information and outputting the result.

(computer technology) includes several main components, without which no system can do. This includes motherboards, processors, hard drives, RAM, monitors, keyboards, mice, peripherals (printers, scanners, etc.), disk drives, etc. In terms of software, operating systems and drivers take the first place. Application programs run in operating systems, and drivers ensure the correct functioning of all hardware devices.

A few words about classification

Modern computing systems can be classified according to several criteria:

• operating principle (digital, analog, hybrid);
• generations (stages of creation);
• purpose (problem-oriented, basic, household, dedicated, specialized, universal);
• capabilities and sizes (super large, super small, single or multi-user);
• conditions of use (home, office, industrial);
• other features (number of processors, architecture, performance, consumer properties).

As is already clear, clear boundaries in the definition of classes cannot be drawn. In principle, any division of modern systems into groups still looks purely arbitrary.

For the effective study of applied computer technologies, it is extremely important to have a clear understanding of the hardware and software of computer technology. The composition of computer technology is called configuration . Computer hardware and software are considered separately. Accordingly, we consider separately hardware configuration and them program configuration. This separation principle is of particular importance for computer science, since very often the solution of the same problems can be provided both by hardware and software. The criteria for choosing a hardware or software solution are performance and efficiency. For example, either type text in a text editor, or use a scanner.

Basic hardware configuration of a personal computer

The personal computer is a universal technical system. His configuration (composition of equipment) can be flexibly changed as needed. However, there is a concept basic configuration , which is considered typical, i.e. minimum set of equipment. In such a kit, the computer is usually supplied. The concept of a basic configuration may change. Currently, the following devices are considered in the basic configuration (Fig. 2.1.):

Let's take a look at its parts.

The main technical means of a personal computer include:

- system unit;

- monitor (display);

- keyboard.

Additionally, you can connect to a computer, for example:

- Printer;

- mouse;

- scanner;

- modem (modulator-demodulator);

- plotter;

- joystick, etc.

System unit

The system unit is the main node inside which the most important components are installed. System unit (see fig. 2.2., 2.3.) - this is a case in which almost all the hardware of the computer is located.

Devices located inside the system unit are called internal, and devices connected to it from the outside are called external. External options, also called peripheral.

Internal organization system block:

· motherboard;

· HDD:

floppy disk drive;

CD-ROM drive;

video card (video adapter);

· sound card;

· power unit.

Systems located on motherboard:

· RAM;

processor;

ROM chip and BIOS system;

bus interfaces, etc.

Magnetic disks, unlike RAM, are designed for permanent storage of information.

There are two types of magnetic disks used in a PC:

hard drive (hard drive);

Removable, floppy disks (floppy disks).

The hard disk is designed to permanently store the information that is more or less often used in work: operating system programs, compilers from programming languages, service (servicing) programs, user application programs, text documents, database files, etc. Winchester significantly outperforms flexible disks by access speed, capacity and reliability.